ORAGANELLES

Organelles The cell membrane is an extremely important part of the cell. The animal and plant cells are held together by the cell membrane. The cell membrane is a lipid bilayer containing proteins, cholesterol, and oligosaccharides. The cell membrane functions as a selective barrier for entry and exit of substances. Without the cell membrane then the cell would fall apart and there would be no more cells. Vacuoles are also important to a cell. Most mature plant cells have a central vacuole, which often takes up more than 90% of the cell. Without a vacuole than a cell would be a lot smaller than they are now, even though they are really small now. Vacuoles in plants can store waste products and break them down so the waste doesn’t harm the cell. The vacuoles also store different molecules a cell needs to survive. The vacuoles contain foods and oil. In a plant, when the vacuoles are full of water, then the plant stands straight up. When the plant’s vacuoles don’t contain a lot of water then the plant will wilt, because the cell wall is the only thing holding up the plant. Without the vacuoles then the cell could possibly burst from having too much water, or the cell could not get enough energy, because there would be no extra stored food. Plants would always be wilted, because there would be no vacuole full of water to hold the plant up straight. White blood cells consume bacterium and destroy it. When this takes place the white blood cell’s lysosomes do most of the work. They combine with the vesicle of engulfed material and release digestive enzymes to break up the material. Just like when a cell takes in molecules of food, the lysosomes break the food down into smaller and simpler products that the cell can use. If the lysosomes pick up a really bad intruder then they will eat it up and eject what is left of it out of the cell.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Active Transport Since the cell membrane is somewhat permeable to sodium ions, simple diffusion would result in a net movement of sodium ions into the cell, until the concentrations on the two sides of the membrane became equal. Sodium actually does diffuse into the cell rather freely, but as fast as it does so, the cell actively pumps it out again, against the concentration difference. The mechanism by which the cell pumps the sodium ions out is called active transport. Active transport requires the expenditure of energy for the work done by the cell in moving molecules against a concentration gradient. Active transport enables a cell to maintain a lower concentration of sodium inside the cell, and also enables a cell to accumulate certain nutrient inside the cell at concentrations much higher than the extracellular concentrations. The exact mechanism of active transport is not known. It has been proposed that a carrier molecule is involved, which reacts chemically with the molecule that is to be actively transported. This forms a compound which is soluble in the lipid portion of the membrane and the carrier compound then moves through the membrane against the concentration gradient to the other side. The transported molecule is then released, and the carrier molecule diffuses back to the other side of the membrane where it picks up another molecule. This process requires energy, since work must done in transporting the molecule against a diffusion gradient. The energy is supplied in the form of ATP. The carrier molecules are thought to be integral proteins; proteins which span the plasma membrane. These proteins are specific for the molecules they transport. Chemiosmosis Populating the inner membrane of the mitochondrion are many copies of a protein complex called an ATP synthase, the enzyme that actually makes ATP! It works like an ion pump running in reverse.

DIABETES

Diabetes The full term for diabetes is actually Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes is a disease where the pancreas produces little or no insulin, the body’s sugar, used for energy. In people with diabetes, glucose levels build up in the blood and urine, causing excessive urination, thirst, hunger, and problems with fat and protein metabolism. In the United States, about 17 million people suffer from diabetes; it is the sixth leading cause of death by diseases. Diabetes is most common in adults over 45, or in people that are overweight or physically inactive. The highest count of people with diabetes is Native Americans. More women are diagnosed with the disease than men. In Diabetes, low insulin levels prevent cells from absorbing glucose. Because of this, glucose builds up in the blood. When this blood passes through the kidneys, they can’t absorb all of the excess glucose. The excess glucose then, spills into the urine. This triggers frequent need to go to the bathroom, greater thirst, and hunger. Additional symptoms may include: Dramatic weight loss, weakness, nausea, and blurred vision. Diabetes is classified in two types. Type one, usually called insulin dependent, the body produces too little insulin or none at all. Symptoms usually appear suddenly. Type one usually occurs in people under the age of twenty, usually around the age of puberty. Type 1 diabetes is considered an autoimmune disease because the immune system attacks and destroys insulin producing cells. Type two diabetes is usually called non-insulin-dependent diabetes. This is when the body does produce insulin, but it can’t or won’t use it. Usually symptoms from type one diabetes are added upon in type two by: tiredness, skin sores that won’t heal, and tingling or numbness in the hands or feet. About ninety to ninety-five percent of Americans have type two diabetes.

CAMERA

The most important thing to photography is light. The camera is a precise instrument for capturing light. The word camera in Latin means room. The name camera comes from the first invention towards capturing the world on film, the camera obscura or dark room. This invention came about in the 14th century and was used by such artists as Da Vinci and Michelangelo to more accurately draw their subjects onto paper. The invention of this box, made way for more advancements in cameras and photography.

There are five essential items in cameras that make photography possible. They are exposure, refraction, plane of focus, angle of view and aperture. Exposure is the amount of time a camera lets film be exposed to light. Refraction is the bending of light through the lenses of a camera. Plane of focus is the area where light reforms an image in the film. Angle of view is the angle created on a lens when you take the two most outer points you can see through a lens and diverge them to the exact center of the lens. The angle created will be the angle at which the camera can take pictures at. Aperture is the amount of light a lens allows into the camera.

The camera obscura, as mentioned previously, was a large box or even a whole room. There would be a small hole in one side, where light could enter. It would be pitch black inside the box except for where the light shined though the hole. An artist would sit inside the box while the subject would sit between the hole and the light source. As light would travel through the hole, the hole would act as a lens. The artist could then trace the subject with greater accuracy than if done freehand. This also helped perspective come more easily to the artist.

FATHERS

The simple word father can conjure up many images and emotions. A father can be a warm and joyful memory, or a dark and dismal one. Two poets confront these memories in Sylvia Plath's poem "My father and husband "Daddy" and in the poem by Theodore Roethke "My Papa's Waltz". At the first look these might seem to be very similar, but upon further investigation it becomes clear that these two poems are more different than same. The two poets write about their fathers, and their childhood experiences with them. The two poems both focus on the subject of a father, but have significant differences with how and what each conveys to the reader. Plath poem relays a message or explanation of the awfull relationship she had with her father. She is explaining to us that her farther was more of a symbol, rather than a caring and loving man. In sharp contrast to Roethke's simple poem intends to bestow a warmth and joyfulness in remembrance of his father. He intends to show us his endearment of this hard working man he called papa. The two poets use all the poetical elements too express their personal view of a father. Each share the same subject but use individual styles of poem structure, language, rhyme, tone, situation, and speaker to express their opinions. These differences allow us as readers to understand the authors intent and main idea of each poem. The first obvious difference in each poem is the gender of the speaker. This difference may be reflected in the opinions and body of each poem. Sons have different experiences with a father than daughters do with their fathers. Sons and fathers most commonly share a much closer bond than fathers and daughters. This relationship may have had some bearing on the opinions and feeling of each speaker. Plath's relationship with her father may have been bad due to that lack of this gender bond.

MOTHERS

Mothers and daughters have been written about, criticized, publicized, condemned, and praised for a long time. As more and more material becomes available on mother-daughter relationships, it becomes apparent that being a mother and being a daughter means different things to different people depending on race, economics, social status and blood type. This paper will explore the meaning of being a mother and being a daughter by combining all of these independent variables. A definition of motherhood and daughterhood will be clearer, however, as experience will tell us, not everyone can be categorized, or even explained. In "Choosing Consciousness", Elizabeth Minnich describes mothers as: ".The people who take day-by-day care of children, the ones whose lives are intricately involved with their children, the ones who keep the children safe, who wrestle with their souls and fight with them and love them and try to heal them and give up on them and give in to them" (Minnich, 195). In her opinion, as well as many other authors we have read, a mother does not need to be blood related. She only needs to care for her child, be there for her child, and love her child. She is the dominant woman force in her child's life, influencing, teaching and setting an example for her child. This idea is reflected in other cultures as well. In black communities, especially, a mother is not necessarily one who gave birth to her daughter. She is the person who sets examples for the daughter and is there to help coach the daughter through the trials and tribulations of life. "Biological mothers or bloodmothers are expected to care for their children. But African and African-American communities have also recognized that vesting one person with full responsibility for mothering a child may not be wise if possible" (Collins, 47).

CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are present in sugars, starch, acids, and in many other nutrients that consist elements of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Having a ratio of 1: 2: 1 or written as CH20. A monosaccharide meaning monomer of sugar is a "simple" carbohydrate. Containing backbone of five carbon atoms that are present in ribose and deoxyribose, components of RNA and DNA. Glucose a six carbon atom that is common cellulose, starch, and glycogen are classified as polysaccharide, Known as a "complex" carbohydrate, with straight or branched chains of many sugar monomers. These categories of carbohydrates are tested in two laboratory experiments. It will allow us (my partner and I) to detect the presence of sugar or starch. The first test, using two different solutions to expose the presence of sugar or starch by color alteration. I hypothesize that both samples of the experiment will result differently in order to pursue the next test. The second test consists of 9 food items, identifying the appearance of sugar or starch. I guess in identifying 75% out of the 9 items right. Conducting both experiments will test my hypotheses either right or wrong. The first experiment on ¡°simple¡± and ¡°complex¡± carbohydrates, several tools and liquids were obtained: two test tubes, spot plate, test tube holder, benedicts reagent, lugol's iodine, 10% karo syrup solution, 1% starch solution. In a test tube (holding it with a test tube holder,) my partner fills 1 cm from the bottom of 10% karo syrup solution. With the benedicts reagent I gently add four drops, then quickly placed the tube in 98 degrees of boiling water, at 3:17p.m. While waiting for 3 minutes, we noticed that before placing the tube in the boiling water, the benedict reagent in the 10% karo syrup was blue. After heating, we observed at 3:20 p.m. that the benedict solution activated and turned yellow.

VITAMINS

Vitamins are everything and nothing. One all the high-pressure advertising and Farfetched claims and stripped away, vitamins emerge as what they really are: everyday Chemicals found in minuscule amounts in almost everything you eat. Vitamins are so Common that it is almost impossible to get them out of food. The closest anyone has come so far to “vitamins-free” dishes in white flour, white rice, white cornmeal, white sugar, and all the other are to much of a process for food. Even more important, if you keep up all the vitamins you need each day in a pile, that pile would be smaller then period at the end of this sentence. To look at it another way, divide an 1000 parts: your maximum vitamins requirement is a mere 7 of those parts every 24 hours. You could store all the vitamins you need each year in a thimble-and still have plenty of room left over. Everybody really needs vitamins. They play an indispensable role in millions of everyday chemical reaction that occur in the body. Every important event, from digestion to reproduction to ready to walking, requires one vitamin or another. If you were to eat a diet totally lacking in vitamins, your life expectancy would be measured in weeks, if not days. Back in 1940 when the German Luftwaffe was destroying London by relentless and methodical bombing, the Royal Air Force suddenly got the upper hand, particularly in high air battle. The rigidly censored British newspaper gleefully revealed to all the world that the British advantage was the result of feeding carrots supposedly rich in vitamin A to the fighter pilots to prevent “night blindness”. From that moment on, a generation of American youngsters were conscientiously overdosed with raw carrots to protect them from night blindness, a disease that has not been a serious threat since the year 1349, when an epidemic occurred in Holland.

MINERALS

Minerals have many different shapes, colors, and they also have many uses. Crystals, metals, and rocks are also minerals just a different kind. Minerals are all over this planet and even in outer space. Living creatures have used minerals in their systems to help their growth. A mineral can also be deadly to living creatures. Some minerals can only form in certain conditions. Certain minerals take long periods of time to create. Crystals, metals, and rocks are all minerals just in some different forms. Crystals have a pure look and they come in many shapes, and colors. Metals have a shiny look, and they also have a softness to a very hard strength. Rocks like limestone has a combination of several minerals. Minerals are classified in 11 different forms. 1. Native elements 2. Sulfides 3. Sulfosalts 4. Oxides and Hydroxides 5. Halides and borates 6. Carbonates 7. Nitrates and oidates 8. Phosphates, vanadates, and arsendates 9. Sulfates10. Tungstates and molydates 11. And silicates. Minerals have more than a thousand different shapes, colors, strength, weight, and their dividing centers. Each mineral has there own specific looks. For example titanium is very hard and has a black-grayish look. But aluminum is soft and has a light-greyish look . There have been 1,500 estimate minerals, but only 200 were identified as common minerals 30 consider frequently enough to be considered as rocks. A crystal is a mineral but looks different from metals. Sometimes crystals and metals will combine into one for example a titanium crystal. Metals are mostly shiny hard useful minerals. Crystals are mainly clear objects that have a crystal look. Minerals come in hardness here are the soft to hardness of minerals from 1 to 10. 1. Tack 2. Gypsum 3. Calcite 4. Fluorite 5. Apatite 6. Orthoclase 7. Quartz 8. Topaz 9. Corundum and 10. Diamond. Crystal comes from the Greek word meaning clear ice.

NATURE

A Natural Wonder or Not? Niagara Falls is known for it’s large continuous flow of water and beauty. The waterfall formed naturally, so why isn’t it considered a natural wonder? The Horseshoe Falls was the beginning of the Falls. About 12,500 years ago near the ending of the Ice Age, recession began at the Niagara Escarpment. There the gorge was being cut out by undermined dolostone pieces as they fall from the falling waters of the Horseshoe Falls and winter ice. The Horseshoe Falls also eroded a thick layer of soft shale from the underlying bedrock. This all formed the Niagara Falls. Father Louis H. Hennepin, a Roman Catholic priest, discovered the waterfall in 1678 with the navigation of the Native Americans. When he had been on a quest with Explorer Robert LaSalle. Niagara Falls is from an aboriginal name. Native Americans say “Niagara” means “neck” or “split in the flatland”. The Americans and Canadians have been working together to preserve the natural beauty of the fall. In doing so they’ve dewatered the Falls before, slowed it’s erosion, and controlled lots of change in the feature with the help of a hydroelectric dam. Diverting water intake from the hydroelectric power plants controls the Niagara River. In order to dewater the Falls a cofferdam was built on the main lands of Goat Island. Slowing its erosion from 3 to 8 feet per year in modern times with the help of the hydroelectric power. Also, the fresh lake water flowing over has been slowed down by 50% to 75%. All of this has kept surrounding islands from being washed away and kept water flowing over every fall. Niagara Falls is the beautiful, naturally formed waterfall that can be seen from a boundary of Canada and the United States. It carries water from the Great Lakes that eventually travels into the Atlantic Ocean.

PLANTS

Plants give us lots of things including oxygen, foods, and medicines. Plants need things like water, light, and air. The amount of daylight affects their growth. Plants also need food, just like we do. The different parts of a plant help it make food. Some plants cross-pollinate. These plants have male (the stamen), or female (the carpel) parts. Wind and water sometimes scatter the pollen, but insects do most of the work. Other plants pollinate themselves. A new plant is born from a seed. The seeds contain food for the plants' first stage in life. As the plants begin to sprout roots and grow stems, they produce their own food using chlorophyll. Seeds scatter many ways. Some plants' seeds have hooks, which stick to fur, then brush off in a different place. Flying seeds, floating seeds, or fruits are carried far by wind or water. Some plants have exploding seed pods that fling seeds into the air. Others are eaten by animals and pass through the other end, unharmed. Plants have three basic parts. They are the roots, stems, and leaves. The roots anchor the plants to its substrate (what it is on) and absorb water and minerals. The stems hold the plant up. The leaves have to do a lot with the plant making food. Plants come in many varieties. Some plants are as large as Giant Sequoias, while others are as small as Rootless Duckweed. Plants can live from months to centuries. Some plants are climbers. They are called epiphytes. They reach out for objects to climb on. They like to climb on poles, fences, statues, and other plants (mainly trees). Some plants eat insects. These plants have moving parts, sticky substances, or pools of fluid to help them catch food. When these plants live on trees, they do not harm the trees. Some plants that live on other plants do harm the plants they are living on. These plants are called parasitic plants.

BOTANY

Carolus Linnaeus was born in the small town of South Rashult. His love for flowers was developed at a very young age. At the age of only eight years old he had earned the nickname “the little botanist”. He studied at Lund and at Uppsala, from which he received his degree in medicine. At Uppsala he met the veteran botanist Olof Celsius, an event that had a profound influence on his career. He was then appointed lecturer in botany in 1730 and two years later conducted explorations in Lapland for the Uppsala Academy of Sciences. Results of his journey were then published in Amsterdam in 1737 as the Flora Laponica and in English Sir J.E. Smith as Lachesis Laponica. His reputation was firmly established by this work and even more by the appearance in1735 his Systema Naturae and of the Genera Plantarum two years later. The Systema Naturae, which Linnaeus had shown to the botanist Jan Fredrik Gronovius in manuscript. He was so impressed that he published at his own expense. This based mainly on flower parts. Although artificial, as he recognized, such a system had the supreme merit of enabling students rapidly to place a plant in a named category, and that at a period when the richness of the world’s vegetation was being discovered at a rate that outstripped more leisurely methods of investigation. His methods were so successful in practice that its facile application was the greatest obstacle to its replacement by the natural systems that superseded it. Then in 1736 he visited England where he met the botanist and physician Sir Hans Sloane in London and Johann Jakob Dillenius, the first professor of botany at Oxford. In 1738 he settled in Stockholm as a practicing physician. In 1739 he married Sara Moraea, the daughter of a physician. Two years after his marriage he was appointed to the chair of medicine at Uppsala but a year later exchanged this for the chair of botany, his true calling.

MUSIC IS LIFE

“I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see life in terms of music.” -Albert Einstein Music is life. Without music, the world would be silent and dreary. Music enfolds you in a blanket of comfort, giving you inspiration in moments of loneliness and sorrow. It is the harmonious articulation of people’s thoughts and passions utilized as a meaningful and complex expression of universal communication. My love for music has grown immensely throughout the past few years and continues to grow without bounds. I started playing the guitar at the age of fourteen, and as a result, my view of the world has changed completely. With the ability to write music, I embody emotion and inspiration. My personal inspiration comes from daily life experiences, feelings and moods. It creates a gateway, in which, I am able to empower my own world of imagination and sensitivity. On the other hand, my emotions are released through precise and meticulous performances that envelop the soul and mind. It is a musician's perfect concert. As I play intensifying versions of my songs, anger, fear, love and hate transform into electrifying energy that heightens the musical notes into another level. I have personally experienced such sublime emotions while playing with the band at distinct performances and each time it captivates my senses. Through this medium, I have discovered diverse abilities and hidden talents. Music has not only developed my knowledge and creativity, but has empowered my values of determination, perseverance and understanding.

THE SHADOW

In reading “The Shadow”, by Hans Christian Anderson, and “ The Nose” by Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol, they both surprise the reader by having an unrealistic initiating incident. Both stories give the reader full of excitement, and unexpected ending. “On the Aim and Technique of the Short Story”, by Edgar Allan Poe, indicates techniques and the main criteria to be a formal short stories, and hence I will compare what is said in Poe’s article and the two stories. As in Poe’s article been described, a short story shouldn’t be too long, or too short. This mean a short story should be able to read within an hour. Every scene is important in the story, and it must be write in full length in order to unify the entire story, and not leaving for the reader to guess what had happened in that scene. In “The Nose”, Gogol is separating the story into three chapters. Separating the story in chapters can identify difference stage of the story, or different passage that is important to the author. The length of “The Shadow” is less than “The Nose”, because different story has different plot, we can’t only judge by its length, but we should look for its contents. For a short story to be extinct to others, the author might create his own narrative voice. This is what the author trying to give idea to the readers. Using correct use of grammar and proper noun is also important, since this is what the reader will understand from the author, Another point mention in Poe’s article is the unity of effect of a short story. In order to make connection between scenes, the author must know the whole story, from the beginning to the end. When a story is unified, then the story would be more interesting In “The Nose”, and “The Shadow”, the author are know well of the story, as we can notice by looking at the ending of the stories.

HEALTHY DIETING

It seems like everyone is always talking about food, 'Junk' food and 'healthy' food, and what you should and shouldn't eat. But it is really important. Healthy eating can make you look different and feel different. And even small changes in the way you eat can make a difference. A good balanced diet will make sure you have all the essential nutrients needed for your brain and body to function well. For example, a healthy diet can: • Help you keep a healthy body weight. • Give you more energy to enjoy all kinds of physical activity, like dancing or for example even surfing • Support your body while you are growing or recovering so that you reach your better form quicker • And what you eat affects your mood, you can make it higher! There are also some benefits that you may not notice straight away, but are worth thinking about. A healthy diet can help you avoid diet-related diseases. These are diseases that usually develop when people are over the age of 40. For example: heart diseases, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, strokes (brain damage due to blood supply problems), some cancers and others. The food that is more likely to lead to health problems is often called 'junk foods'. It contains lots of fat, salt and sugar and do not have enough fiber. With small amount of fiber it becomes a problem as it is not very filling, compared to other everyday foods, and it is easy to overeat them. For example, it is much better to eat an apple or a banana than to eat a double hamburger with ketchup and mayonnaise. You will feel full in both cases, but a fruit or a vegetable is much healthier. Diets high in fat (especially saturated fat) increase risk of heart disease - like heart attacks. Part of the reason is that fatty deposits can develop inside blood vessels, so not enough blood can get through to your heart, or brain or other important organs.

THE PERIODIC TABLE

The periodic table is a rectangle that every one to day recognizes. This function of grouping the chemical elements was created by several European scientists; it all started in the 1860’s. In 1863, a French geologist, A. E. Béguyer de Chancourtois created a list of the elements in the periodic table and arranged the elements by increasing atomic weight. The list was wrapped around a cylinder so that sets of similar elements lined up, creating the first representation of the periodic table. In England, a chemist by the name of John A. R. Newlands was also wrapping the elements, noticing that the chemical groups repeated after every eight elements. He named this the octave rule, and compared it to a musical scale. His work was considered to be absurd, so his work was ignored for years. Chemists Dmitrii I. Mendeleev, a Russian, and German Lothar Meyer were working independently to arrange the elements into seven columns, corresponding to various chemical and physical properties. Then latter came the periodic table as of to day to be what we see. Some of the parts of the modern periodic table are groups/families, and periods. There are many groups/families in the periodic table. The Alkali Metals are one of them. The Alkali Metals are the elements in Group IA of the periodic table. The members of the family are lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium. All six elements have these properties the metals. Some of the prosperities are, they can be cut with a knife, they are the most reactive metals, they are so reactive that they are never found in nature, and they are always combined with other elements. Alkaline Earth Metals are beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium. These elements have higher melting points and boiling points then the Alkali Metals. They are highly reactive, but not as much as the alkali metals.

THE MOLE

The mole’s beginning is traced back to the most basic units of matter, atoms. Since atoms are extremely small, scientists have perplexed a great deal over finding a way to measure atomic mass. They struggled to find a universal container that had the capability to mass atoms. Measuring the mass of one atom on a balance in grams is not practical, because the result in grams is an amount too small to be of any use in the laboratory. Fortunately, a new idea came about. If two or more same amounts of different substances are compared, the resulting ratios can be used to deduce atomic mass. These atomic mass ratios always remain the same. For example, one atom of Helium has 1/12 the mass of one atom of Carbon-12. In this way, Helium has an atomic mass of one unit, whereas the isotope Carbon-12 has an atomic mass of 12 units. Carbon-12 is the standard for atomic mass. Eventually, a mass spectrometer was invented to determine a single atom’s mass even more accurately. It measured atomic mass by comparing the time and distance an atom traveled when knocked off its course. The invention of the mass spectrometer led to extremely accurate values for single atomic mass. Now that the mass of a single atom could be figured, the quest for a universal container continued. Knowing how much one atom weighs but not how many atoms exist is not very helpful to the chemist. A universal container must have the capacity to contain the same number of molecules under the same conditions of pressure, temperature and volume. Such conditions made the search for a universal container very difficult. However, an Italian scientist by the name of Avogrado finally solved the dilemma of a container. The answer to this scientific puzzle was in the form of a number, Avogrado’s number. Avogrado’s number, 6.02 x 10²³, is known as the mole and an accepted SI standard for finding atomic mass.

TEMPERATURE

Temperature changes affect most of the biochemical and physiological processes on our planet (Campbell & Reece, 2002, p.927). Depending on the temperature, the rate of any activity may increase or decrease. Generally, the rate of activity increases as the temperature increases (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1983, p.227). Temperature raises the motion of molecules in matter, and thus it results in higher molecular vibration (Wilmer, 2000, p.193). However, molecules would explode if their rate would reach a very high temperature. This is why when matter hits the point of ‘denaturation,’ it sharply decreases the rate of movement and becomes inactive or dead. In the same way, when the temperature comes close to absolute zero (0 K = -273.15 C), all rate of motion comes down to zero (Campbell & Reece, 2002, p.78). Especially, animals can show a very narrow rage of temperature tolerance (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1983, p. 229). We’ll examine the rate of activity through osmosis, enzyme activity, and respiration. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane (Campbell & Reece, 2002, Glossary). In the Brownian Movement experiment, the ink should diffuse in the water and its particles should move in the slide at room temperature. Diffusion is the net movement of molecules from a region of higher concentrations to a region of lower concentration through the molecules’ kinetic energy. Gases will disperse and diffuse in a rapid motion when placed together because of its high kinetic energy. Enzymes are proteins that are function as catalysts. Catalysts are chemical agents thata change the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction (Campbell & Reece, 2002, Glossary). Enzyme activity inevitably is changed by temperature. They reacted faster when temperature rose, and reacted slower when the opposite happened.

TERMINAL VELOCITY

Terminal velocity is reached when the force of air resistance pushing up against the falling object ( i.e. skydiver), is equal to the force of gravity pushing the object downward. As the object falls downwards, there exists a drag force that acts to impede the motion. This drag force not only acts in the direction opposite to the motion, but also depends on the square of the speed of the object. When the object begins to fall, the speed is slow and thus its drag force is also small. As the object increases speed, so too does the drag and at some point the speed would increase to a point where the drag force would act to cancel out the force due to gravity. Therefore the body no longer accelerates and the speed remains constant. Drag force is what makes an object slow down as it moves downwards , if weren’t for these air molecules, objects would continue to increase its speed as it got closer to the ground. Different objects have different terminal speeds. The terminal velocity is not only based on the speed of the object, but also on the density of the fluid through which the object moves. Joe Kittinger was one of the first men to reach a terminal velocity, when on August 16th, 1960 he rode a four and a half foot open gondola to 102800 feet. The ascent through which temperatures that fell to ninety-four degrees below zero, took an hour and a half. When he reached his destined height, he stepped out of the gondola and plunged through the stratosphere reaching supersonic speed in the rarified atmosphere. Between 90000 and 70000 feet he experienced great difficulty in breathing , and by 50000 feet his free-fall speed had dropped to two hundred and fifty miles an hour in the denser atmosphere. After he had fallen for four minutes and thirty-seven seconds, Kittinger’s main chute opened, and some eight minutes later he landed at the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico without any permanent injuries.

SPEED

Should Highway Speed Limits Be Increased? Should highway speed limits be increased? Should we strike down every sign that the government posts and uses to regulate the speed limit on the thousands of highways around the country? Should we trust the driving ability of each and every person to drive within a reasonably safe speed? The response that most people lean toward is one of negativity. People automatically assume that the speeds presently posted on our highways are there only for our own protection. People do not believe that the government is knowingly implementing speed limits that are below a safe speed for a given roadway. It is true that the government claims to set speed limits that are for the public well being. As the United States Department of Transportation puts it, "Speed limits are appropriate speeds based on the traffic of an area, road conditions, weather, and the lighting" (The Star Ledger). But the fact of the matter is that their arguments have no factual basis. Suppose the government is really setting speed limits that are safe. If this were true, speed limits would change constantly. If the roadway were wet, if the traffic is thick, or the visibility is bad at a certain point in time then the speed limit would have to change continuously. But, the government can't be on the highway twenty-four hours of the day changing signs. If the government wants to set a safe speed standard then it must be much more realistic. A driver knows their ability as well as their vehicles ability under diverse conditions. If the government tries to tell society that the faster speeds they are traveling is harmful; people will not feel that the government is looking out for their safety. They will instead feel as if though they were being treated as children.

ELECTRONS

All matter, both living and nonliving, is composed of basic structures called elements. There are only 92 naturally occurring elements. Elements are what they are because they cannot be broken down to substances with different properties. Elements contain tiny particles called atoms. There is only one type of atom in each type of element. The three most stable parts of an atom are the proton, neutron and electrons. Protons and neutrons are located with the nucleus of an atom. Electrons move around the atom. Most of an atom is empty space. Protons and electrons carry an electrical charge; protons have a positive electrical charge and neutrons have a negative electrical charge. When an atom is electrically neutral, the number of protons equals the number of electrons. The entire atom is held together by the electrical force between the positive nucleus and the negative electrons. The periodic table is a convenient listing of the 92 naturally occurring elements. The element’s atomic symbol, weight and number are included on this chart. One or two letters of each element is used to create it’s atomic symbol. An element’s atomic number is the number of protons in each atom of the element. The atomic weight of an element is the weight of each individual atom’s protons and neutrons. Atoms are listed according to increasing atomic number on the periodic table of elements. The rows are arranged according to the number of electrons in the outer shell. Electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom at fixed distances, forming electron shells that correspond to different energy levels. The electron shell closest to the atomic nucleus is the smallest and can hold only 2 electrons. The second shell can hold up to eight electrons.

ATOM

Chemistry A Final Review Introduction Atoms make up everything around us from the air we breathe to food we eat and even the stars in the sky. The average layman does not know much about the atom but in this paper I will explain what and why they are. A Brief History The word atom comes from the Greek word meaning indivisible. The concept of the atom had its foundations in ancient Greece with Leucippe of Milet. In 420 B.C. his disciple Democrite of Abdere had the concept that atoms were particles in perpetual motion and were invisible because of their infinitely small size, indivisible, solid, eternal because they are perfect, surrounded by an empty space, and having an infinite number of shapes. His theory was exceptionally close to reality, being that it was 420B.C. The Periodic Table Today we know that each atom is made up of three parts, a proton, a neutron and an electron. These atoms combine to make compounds. The most basic atoms are called elements and cannot be broken down any more than they already are. There are currently 118 known elements 90 of them occurring naturally and the other 28 are man made. The elements combine in an infinitesimal amount of ways to make up every thing around us. Created in 1869 by Mendeldiev the periodic table of the elements is how we chart these elements. Each column on the periodic table is categorized by the amount of atoms in its elements outer field. Hydrogen, Lithium, and sodium all being in the same column on the table have the same amount of atoms in their outer field. Since the electrons in the outer field dictate the types of chemical reactions that an atom can have, the atoms in the same column have some of the same properties (chemical reactions). The Proton We already know that atoms are made up of three different parts (protons, neutrons, and electrons) but how do these particles interact.

AIR POLLUTION

What causes air pollution? Air pollution results mainly from the incomplete combustion of several fuels, such as coal, petrol and wood. The primary sources of pollution from combustion are furnaces in factories, engines in vehicles and burning of trash, in the form of particles or gases. Air Pollution is a harmful substances to the atmosphere resulting in damage to the environment, human health, and quality of life. One of many forms of air pollution occurs inside homes, schools, offices, in cities , across continents and even globally. Air pollution causes damage to the environment. Air pollution cause depletion of the ozone layer, which allows a greater amount of ultraviolet rays to earth, that can be harmful for humans. Some air pollutants return to earth in the form of acid rain , which it can corrode statues and buildings, damage crops, forests, makes lakes, and streams unsuitable for fish and other plant and animal life .Smog is another result from air pollutant which is in the form of fog that is harmful to humans. Global warming can also be a cause by air pollutants, which causes the earth temperatures to increase. This effects the whole earth as one , and leading to a rise in global average temperatures. Air pollution is changing the earth’s environment , if we continue polluting we can have serious consequences that can change the earth and health of humans. Ozone is a gas made up of three oxygen’s which produces O3 . The ozone layer is found in the stratosphere found about 30 miles above the earth. According to the website The Environment A Global Challenge “ The highest regions of the stratosphere contain about 90% of all ozone.” (n.p.) The suns rays are absorbed by these ozone molecules, which keeps the rays from reaching the earth. . The main pollutant is chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which is the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer.

WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution must be stopped. Thousands of animals die each year from water pollution. Water pollution was originally caused by need of space (to dump trash). The dumping of garbage was caused by the lack of space in landfills. Instead of recycling some people started dumping the trash in the water. But in 1956 when the Federal Water Pollution Control Act was created. It slowed almost to a halt in 1977 when the Clean Water Act was created. But, it still happens. Company's still dump waste in the ocean, streams, and rivers even though it is against the law. I think many people agree with saving the oceans and lakes, but many people still dump waste not knowing it or just not caring. Another reason why we have so much waste is because of hospitals. They are constantly dumping excess trash and things of that sort into the oceans, rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds. Water pollution kills all kinds of animals every year. Oil spills near anchorage Alaska caused over 3,000 otters to die 36,000 different kinds of seabirds were killed and over 100 eagles. Eventually water pollution will cause there to be no life in the ocean, lakes, and rivers. All the dumping of waste into the water will cause all the water creatures to die off and there will be tolerable areas for life or people to swim, or anything at all. That is why I am hear today. I am hear to discuss our ten-year plan with you. We need to cut down on the deadly wastes that are put into our waters. The hospitals should stop dumping their wastes into lakes, rivers, or oceans. We hope to come up with a plan called the Water Quality Program. We hope this will improve the performance of water quality projects based on voluntary adoption of alternative management practices.

EAR

The ear is an organ of the body that is used for hearing and balance. It is connected to the brain by the auditory nerve and is composed of three divisions, the external ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The greater part of which is enclosed within the temporal bone. The ear is looked upon as a miniature receiver, amplifier and signal-processing system. The structure of the outer ear catching sound waves as they move into the external auditory canal. The sound waves then hit the eardrum and the pressure of the air causes the drum to vibrate back and forth. When the eardrum vibrates its neighbour the malleus then vibrates too. The vibrations are then transmitted from the malleus to the incus and then to the stapes. Together the three bones increase the pressure which in turn pushes the membrane of the oval window in and out. This movement sets up fluid pressure waves in the perilymph of the cochlea. The bulging of the oval window then pushes on the perilymph of the scala vestibuli. From here the pressure waves are transmitted from the scala vestibuli to the scala tympani and then eventually finds its way to the round window. This causes the round window to bulge outward into the middle ear. The scala vestibuli and scala tympani walls are now deformed with the pressure waves and the vestibular membrane is also pushed back and forth creating pressure waves in the endolymph inside the cochlear duct. These waves then causes the membrane to vibrate, which in turn cause the hairs cells of the spiral organ to move against the tectorial membrane. The bending of the stereo cilia produces receptor potentials that in the end lead to the generation of nerve impulses. The External or Outer Ear - comprises of the auricle or pinna which is the fleshy part of the outer ear. It is cup-shaped and collects and amplifies sound waves which then passes along the ear canal to the ear drum or tympanic membrane.

TEETH

Teeth are one of the most important features of our body. Teeth are comprised of hard, bony structures in the mouths of humans primarily used to chew food. Teeth are the body's hardest, most durable organ—long after bones and flesh have dissolved, archaeologists find well-preserved teeth from humans and other animals that lived thousands of years ago. Humans use teeth to tear, grind, and chew food in the first step of digestion, enabling enzymes and lubricants released in the mouth to further break down food. Teeth also play a role in human speech—the teeth, lips, and tongue are used to form words by controlling airflow through the mouth. Additionally, teeth provide structural support to muscles in the face and form the human smile. Like humans, most animals use their teeth to chew food, although many animals have evolved teeth that perform other specialized tasks. For example, many carnivorous (meat-eating) animals, such as tigers, have developed long, sharp teeth for clamping down on and killing prey. Beavers have chisel-like front teeth that they use to cut down large trees for building dams. So that takes us to the next question, Why have our teeth been so important to us as human beings? Thousands of years ago when man was first created, teeth were more important than they are today. Years ago, teeth were not only used for breakdown of food but sometimes for self defense towards other humans. Men and women used their teeth to survive daily life and protect their young. If you didn’t have teeth back then, then your chances of survival were slim because teeth were needed to eat to stay alive, fight off enemies, and to talk. If you lost your teeth in battle or hunting, then you were in deep trouble because man was the hunted by all sorts of animals.

THE BRAIN

The Brain Can you image a hunk of pinkish-gray tissue the size of your hand that is controlling your entire body? This organ in your body is called the brain. The brain is not the largest organ but is the most complex organ in your body. (Metos, 1990, p. 10 ) When you think of the brain do you think of the control center of movement, sleep, hunger, thirst, and virtually every other vital activity necessary to survive? Or do you think of the brain as the organ that controls emotions including, hate, love, fear, sadness, mourning, ect.? I really doubt you would think of that unless you were an anthropologist, a scientist who studies humans? ( Funk & Wagnalls Corporation, 1995, Encarta Encyclopedia. ) As a matter of fact, the brain weights about 1.3 kilograms or about 3 pounds, that is in males, because there thick headed, but in females it weights about 10% less and contains 10 to 15 billion nerve cells. ( Metos,1990, pg. 10. ) These nerve cells are all linked together, they are responsible for the control of all the mental functions. Also from the outside of the human brain, which I doubt any of us will ever see in person, looks like it’s divided into three parts, which it is, the first part is the cerebrum, the second part is the cerebellum, and the last part is the brain stem. The three parts of the brain are very complex and have many little parts in them. The first part of the human brain is the cerebrum and is the largest part. It weighs about 85% of the 3 pounds. The second part of the human brain is the cerebellum, which is in the posterior, or the hind part of the brain. The cerebellum is the center of which reflex, for coordination. The third part is the most complex, the brain stem is made up of six different parts. The first part of the brain stem is the thalamus, which lies in the middle of the brain.

THE EYE

The eye houses 70% of all sensory receptors of the body. At first glance, the eye seems to be a simple structure, but it is very complex. The actual eye or eyeball is a hollow sphere consisting of many parts. The structure includes the ora serrata retinae, ciliary body, suspensory ligament, cornea, iris, pupil, anterior pole, anterior segment, lens, the scleral venous sinus, the posterior segment, the sclera, the choroid, the treina, the macula lutea, the fovea centralis, the posterior pole, the optic nerve, the central artery and the vein of the retina and the optic disc. Each of these performs a unique function. When abnormalities occur, the result is a vision problem, disease or blindness. The vascular tunic or uvea is the middle coat of the eyeball. It has three regions called the choroid, ciliary body and the iris. The choroid is a dark brown membrane that provided nutrition to the eye tunics. The ciliary body is a thickened ring of tissue that encircles the lens and consists of muscle bundles. The iris is the colored part of the eye, which is the visible portion seen and referred to as a person’s eye color. It is shaped like a flat doughnut and is located between the cornea and the lens. The pupil is the round central opening of the iris and allows light to enter the eye. The retina also known as the sensory tunic consists of two layers, a pigmented layer and a neural (nervous) layer. The neural layer of the retina plays a direct role in vision. It is composed of three types of neurons: photoreceptors, bipolar cells and ganglion cells. Rods and cones are found in ural retinas. Rods aid in our dim-light and peripheral vision while cones aid in our bright light and high color vision. There are also various chamber and fluids within the eye, which aid in proper vision and prevention of disease and blindness.

SOUND

The Importance of Sound Theater is an extremely involved and complex production. It encompasses play writing, directing, acting, costume, makeup, scenery, lighting properties, theater architecture, machinery, special effects, management, audiences, and criticism (Brockett-b xi). What this statement fails to include is the element of sound design as a major theatrical consideration. The aspect of sound in the past and present entails so many technical aspects, that it must not be over-looked in any production. This is reinforced by analyzing the need for music and sound, how these where used in the past, and finally what to consider for modern sound design. Music and sound is essential for enhancing any production. Its presence serves two crucial functions. First, it establishes mood. All people have certain reactions to sounds, especially music. For example, upbeat rythmatic tempos have the ability to release adrenaline in a persons body. Slower tempos can tend to depress people. In theater, the use of sound and music is geared towards the extremes. The sound designer=s purpose is to create a moody atmosphere. For example, most moods created relate comedy to gaiety and tragedy to somberness (Brockett 402). Heavy beating of drums and deep horns bring a sense of hostility and aggression which are typical feelings of war that can be suggested in a tragedy. The second function sound serves is exposition. Exposition refers to realistic sound effects. Things such as gunshots, breaking glass, doorbells, and telephones are most commonly used in theater. The most important task of exposition is to alert the audience to off-stage occurrences or to prepare them for up-coming events on stage. Also, these sounds are presented to give the audience a knee-jerking reaction.

LIGHT

Light is a kind of electromagnetic radiation. It is made up of vibrations between a certain group of frequencies. When light is given off from a source it spreads out over a larger area. Scientists are still dumbfounded by exactly what light is. When light hits a smooth or polished surface it "bounces" off at the same angle that it hit. Reflecting telescopes are made of concave mirrors and they have helped astronomers chart the universe because the mirrors interact with each other to magnify what is being observed. Refraction is when light bends as it goes through glass, water and other transparent objects that are denser than air. A prism is an instrument that spreads out a ray of light into the color spectrum. A lens is another instrument that uses the light refraction, but lenses are put to more practical uses (I’m not saying that a mirror isn’t practical enough.Welcome to the wonderful world of light, including the refraction and reflection of light. Refraction is the bending of light when it travels through a denser, or thicker material, such as water. Reflection is a bit different though; when light hits a smooth or polished surface it "bounces" off the surface at almost the same angle (Depending on how flat the surface is.). But before we get onto that, lets talk about light and exactly what it is. THE NATURE OF LIGHT Light is a kind of electromagnetic radiation, which means, that they are magnetic waves and particles which are caused by electricity. Light consists of very fast oscillations at a certain group of frequencies, that can be detected by the human eye. When light vibrates at different frequencies the eye sees different colors. When light is emitted, or given off, from a source such as the sun, it moves in straight lines, and starts to filter out into a broader area as it travels farther.

TELEVISION

Television In our society, we like to think of the television as nothing more of a form of entertainment. But do we really believe that? Maybe when television was first introduced, that is all that it was. That certainly is not the case today. It tells us what to buy, what to wear, how to act, even how to think. In other words, people are relying too much on television as a source of information. There are very few television stations that are black oriented. This hurts blacks because it causes them to lose race pride and to conform. More and more, they lose their pride and start taking in more information that whites provide to them. On television, there are white women with straight, blond hair, tiny noses, and a skinny figure. This is the “worst sort of Americanism”(Early, 225). When a black woman straightens her hair, this is because she thinks that she will look better if she does this. But who tells her this? The commercials on television that now have black women who do not look so black anymore. This connects to one of the essays that I read by stating, ‘when offered a choice between a black doll and a white doll, little black girls invariably chose the white doll because they thought it “prettier” ’(Early, 226). This causes psychological damage to black girls because they will never think they are pretty enough until they are white. Toni Morrison writes, “Adults, older girls, shops, magazines, newspapers, window signs----all the world had agreed that a blue eyed, yellow-haired, pink-skinned doll was what every girl treasured.” (Early, 225) They took this information in from things just like television, which are all run by whites in a white world. Television is starting to get better for blacks in some ways, but also even worse. There are stations that are not trying to unite the blacks and move ahead.

MOBILE PHONES

I don’t have a mobile phone. I don’t want a mobile phone. Most young people do have mobile phones though and they are becoming a hugely popular accessory for any young person to have. Why do young people feel they must have mobile phones? Do they realise there may be a massive risk in using them? There is a huge debate about the dangers of mobile phones. Millions of pounds are being invested in to finding out if mobile phones are safe. Do you know the facts about mobile phones? Mobile phones aren’t all that bad. There are hundreds of uses for them whether they are being used professionally in business or for socialising. Mobile phones are very often used in the emergency services for doctor’s policemen and firemen. Most doctors and nurses who are on call rely heavily on mobile phones. Here mobile phones are a good thing and make saving peoples life easier. The same type of communication is used in fire departments and police departments. When they need more staff they can easily contact them even when they are not at their house. Mobiles make the emergency services more efficient and are vital to them. Another use for mobile phones in the emergency services department is being able to text them with the emergency. Deaf and dumb people were previously unable to contact the emergency services until the invention of mobile phone texting. This life saving invention will and has saved lives. A lot of businesses rely on mobile phones and being able to contact people wherever and whenever they are. Lots of companies are working round the clock and need to contact people like the manager twenty-four hours a day and other employees. Eighty-eight percent of teenagers have mobile phones. Fact. The average teenager uses their mobile for around forty-five minutes a day.

COMPUTER

Computers are found in practically every household today. Everywhere you look, people have access to a Personal Computer, someway or another. As computers get more advanced, the demand for a better computer gets greater. Personal Computer (PC), machine capable of repetitively and quickly performing calculations and instructions. Designed to be used by a single person, a PC is smaller, less expensive, and easier to use than other classes of computers, such as supercomputers, mainframe computers, and workstations. However, it usually has less computational power.1 First appearing as massive machines seen only in areas of high technology, the computer eventually found its way into homes and offices in the smaller, more accessible form of the PC. They have revolutionized entertainment, science, the media, art, medicine, education, and business because they provide computational abilities at a low cost to people with no programming experience. PCs enable artists to envision and manipulate images. Musicians use them for learning, creating, and recording music. Businesses track finances and forecast company performance using PCs. Foreign correspondents can compose news stories on portable PCs, called laptops, and electronically submit these stories from remote locations. Many people work at home and communicate with fellow workers via their PCs in a practice known as telecommunications. PCs are also able to interface with worldwide communication networks, such as the Internet, and the graphics- based information database known as the World Wide Web to find information on any subject. With a PC and a modem, a user is able to connect to information on local, national, and international networks via phone lines.

MATH

I believe that math is very important in our world, because with out it there would be no money, no math teachers, no business administrators to just name a few. In the coming future, I plan to become a teacher, but if there were no math, I would be nobody. I would be using math a lot, because I will need to keep grades for tests, homework, exams and the class grade. At the same time I would need to keep track in my record of how many students are currently taking my class and probably how many are going to drop it. This way I will be prepared with my class lecture and handouts. At the same time if I am going to be a teacher I will need to teach math to my students. I will be using math a lot, we can say every day I will need math. Even on this world math is very necessary, you cannot go out and not use math. Some examples of were we use it are very simple as just going to the store. At this point we will need math in order to pay for our stuff and give the right amount and of course get the right amount in return. Another simple way were we see math is in our cooking, for example baking a cake, we will need to place the right amount of ingredients in our mixture in order for the cake to be eatable, also we need to put the right temperature and keep track of the time that way the cake will not get burned or be undercooked. From this two examples shown above we can see that math is in our every day life and we could not be able to do anything with out it. I plan to use math in my future for everything, from my cooking to my teaching. I will teach my students the importance of math and learning the correct math and know how, where, and why to use it. I understand that math is important, that is why I am learning more about it and using it in my every day life.

PHYSICAL THERAPY

Physical Therapy/Therapist Physical Therapy is the treatment of disorders of the muscles, bones, or joints by means of physical agents such as heat, light, water, manual and electronic massage, and exercise. A stroke, arthritis, fractures, and nerve damage are common conditions that are treated by Physical Therapy. The type of treatment needed is prescribed by a physician and carried out by trained physiotherapists. A therapist attempts to prevent pain or further damage and may also train different muscles to compensate for the ones that have been damaged. Such methods such as whirlpool baths are valuable in treating injuries and chronic inflammatory conditions. Ultrasound and short-wave diathermy may also be used in treating certain forms of disorder. Massage is also a form of physical therapy. It provides stimulation of nerves and prevents muscular atrophy in body areas disabled by paralysis or rheumatic disorders. On top of these methods that a certified physiotherapist can perform a person involved in physical therapy must also do their part of the deal. This includes active exercises as treatment to rebuild strength lost in an area of the body during a time of healing. Physical Therapists are well educated in understanding the interaction of all your body parts. Their approach to your problem begins with an examination, then a diagnosis, and then a treatment of your problem. Along with this they teach you how to take care of yourself by showing you how to do exercises to properly gain strength and mobility to prevent recurring injury. To become a Physical Therapist the minimum educational requirement is a post-baccalaureate degree from an accredited college/university. The majority of these programs offer a master’s degree. There are about 200 colleges and universities nationwide that offer professional education programs in physical therapy.

BIOLOGY

Marine Biology I. Description A. Nature of Work Marine Biology also refers to Biological Sciences or Biological Oceanography. Marine Science is the general term for research conducted in oceans and coastal or inland waters connected to the sea. This particular field is probably the best known to the public. Marine Biology deals with the study of micro and living organisms such as plants, animals, viruses, and bacteria in oceans, estuaries, and other bodies of salt water. In the feild of Marine Biology you plan, participate in, and administer research programs for government experiment stations such as private research centers, manufactoring firms, and medical service industries. Tools and equipment for this career includes lab animals, X-Ray and other lab equipment, computers, spectrophotometers, collections of specimens, and a variety of others. B. Qualifications for Job 1. Education Starting no later than high school, a Marine Biologist should obtain a solid education in as many basic sciences as possible including chemistry, physics, and biology. Mathematics is essential. Plane geometry, trigonometry, solid geometry, and two years of algebra are recommended. Good English is no less important, for both written and oral reports are a big part of Marine Biology. The study of a foreign language, especially French, German, or Russian should begin early. Degrees in this study are offered only to college graduate students. Most entry level jobs minimally require a Bachelors degree in a natural science from an accredited college or university. Doctoral degree holders face competition for independent research positions.

THE IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY

The Importance of Chemistry We are surrounded everyday by Chemistry. Chemistry was responsible for you car to get you to work, your furnace to heat your home, and your body to turn your breakfast into energy. The coke you drank with your lunch was flavoured by chemistry. Chemistry is often called the central science, because it is vital in the sciences of physics and biology. For example a living organism is a complex chemical factory; by understanding the chemical behaviour scientists can find new ways to treat disease. Chemists have even made it possible to produce crops of food plants that are hardier than the parent strains. Chemists have been able to make lots of useful inventions by using their knowledge of Chemistry. They discovered by mixing some twenty odd chemicals together they could flavour something with the flavour of peaches with out that item of food coming in contact with a single peach. Blend together a few different chemicals and you can create a pleasant smelling liquid, thus revolutionizing the perfume industry. Chemists discovered certain compounds can be used as a non-toxic food perseverant. When we tan is the sun it is a chemical reaction between our skin and the UV rays of the sun.

SUN

Since the birth of mankind, the Earth has been lit by the vibrant light of our closest star, The Sun. The sun, which is roughly 1 au from the earth, is a giant ball of burning gases, without much solid. The Sun was “born” approximately 5 billion years ago, as it began it’s formation in a huge cloud of gases. As the materials condensed, high temperatures and great pressures built up at the center. These conditions set off a nuclear reaction that still releases energy and causes this star to continuously shine. This nuclear reaction, known as nuclear fusion, produces 386 billion megawatts of energy per second. This solar energy is created deep within the core of the Sun. It is here that the temperature (15,000,000° C; 27,000,000° F) and pressure (340 billion times Earth's air pressure at sea level) is so intense that these nuclear reactions take place. This reaction causes four protons or hydrogen nuclei to fuse together to form one alpha particle or helium nucleus. The alpha particle is about .7 percent less massive than the four protons. The difference in mass is expelled as energy and is carried to the surface of the Sun, through a process known as convection, where it is released as light and heat. Energy generated in the Sun's core takes a million years to reach its surface. Every second 700 million tons of hydrogen are converted into helium ashes.

PLUTO

Pluto Ninety three years ago an astrologer noticed slight variations in the orbit of the planet Uranus.Then the search began for a ninth planet.Twenty five years later a startling discovery was made. The year was nineteen thirty when Clyde William Tombaugh had discovered a ninth planet beyond Neptune.The telescopic search initiated twenty five years years before by the man who first noticed these variations in Uranus's orbit Percival Lowell had been a success.4670000000 miles (2670000000 kilometers) from Earth (at its closest point) a small yellowish colored marble was spotted.3666200000 miles (3666200000 kilometers) from the sun the small planet had a diameter of one thousand four hundred twenty miles (2284 kilometers) making it the smallest planet, and yet the furthest from the sun.Its mass only point four percent of Earth's, and radius only eighteen percent of Earth's it is quite a small planet.It has a density of one hundred ninety nine percent almost twice water. Plutos environment is one of a cold desolate place.The tempeture ranges from a frigid negative two hundred twenty three to negative two hundred thirty three degrees Celsius which converts to negative three hundred sixty nine and negative three hundred eighty nine degrees farenhiet.Its extremely frigid tempetures are due to its obvious distance from the sun.Its atmosphere consists of nothing more than methane.Plutos thin atmosphere also contributes greatly to its extremely low atmospheric pressure only one hundred times weaker than that of Earth's. Its surface is made of very rocky material which is believed to be caused by the low tempeture, and atmospheric pressure. Pluto has only one natural satellite named Charon.Not so much as satellite a duplicate of Pluto its diameter is one thousand nine hundred ninety two kilometers (720 miles).

MARS

Mars is the fourth planet from the sun. It orbits the sun at a span of about 140 million miles. Looking up at Mars from Earth the planet Mars appears fiery red. The surface is almost exactly the same as the dry land on Earth. The time it takes Mars to rotate once on its axis is about half on hour longer than an Earth day. Phobos and Deimos are the names of the two moons of Mars. The atmosphere is cooler and drier than it was in the mid 1970's. Mars appears as a fairly bright, star-like object in the night sky of Earth. It moves through Earth's sky fairly rapidly, on a time scale of months. Because of the relative movements of Earth and Mars around the Sun, Mars appears to move backward in the sky for a short time around opposition, when the two planets are closest. As Mars and Earth orbit the Sun, the distance between them varies from about 75 million km (about 47 million mi.) at opposition to about 375 million km (about 233 million mi.) when the planets are on opposite sides of the Sun. This change in distance causes the apparent size of Mars to vary by a factor of 5 and its brightness to vary by a factor of 25. On February 25, 1995, Mars was at a distance of approximately 103 million kilometers (65 million miles) from Earth. The atmosphere is 95 percent carbon dioxide, 3 percent nitrogen and nearly 2 percent argon. Atmosphere pressure varies with the season and ranges from 6 to 10 millibars (1 millibar is approximately one one-thousandth of the air pressure on the surface of Earth.) The variation in pressure is caused by carbon dioxide freezing out at the poles of the planet in fall and winter. The level of water vapor averages 0.016 percent. There are six major types of clouds, which form in Mars's atmosphere. The Viking 2 lander recorded images of water and ice frost during the winter.

VENUS

I chose to write my paper on the planet Venus. The article I found on StarDate was from May 3, 2001, titled ABrilliant Venus@. It describes the physical characteristics of the planet and a brief history, which includes the origin of its name. Venus is an incredibly fascinating phenomenon with a plethora of information to be learned from its known facts. Venus is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty. Originally, it was thought that Venus was composed of two separate bodies referred to as the AMorning Star@ and the AEvening Star@ because it is visible at both sunrise and sunset. Venus formed approximately the same time as the Earth from the same nebula or a diffuse mass of interstellar dust and gas. In addition, the mass of Venus is about 81% that of the Earth=s and its diameter is approximately 95% in comparison. Interestingly enough however, the planet=s years are shorter than its days. It takes Venus 243 Earth days to make one rotation but only 225 days to complete a revolution around the sun. The planet=s axial tilt is a mere 2.64 degrees whereas the Earth=s is about 23.5. Additionally, the sun rises in the west and sets in the east, the exact opposite of what we experience on this planet. Therefore, Venus experiences a reversed rotation called a retrograde rotation, which allows it to revolve from east to west. This may in fact be due to a collision with a large asteroid several years ago. The temperature on Venus is much hotter than that of the Earth=s. It is about 482 degrees Celsius. This is due to the composition of its atmosphere, which is made up of mostly carbon dioxide and nitrogen. This mixture produces a greenhouse effect that allows the sun=s rays to enter the atmosphere but is so dense that heat cannot be dispersed into space. It is estimated that this accounts for escalated temperatures 400 degrees beyond normal. Venus has no oceans or any other sources of water.

JUPITER

Jupiter is one of the Sun’s most interesting planets. Jupiter has many intriguing properties, which differ from those of Earth and other planets. It has many satellites uncommon to others in the solar system. It even helps to sustain life on Earth. Jupiter may seem like an ordinary planet, but in reality Jupiter may be one of the most interesting planetary bodies in the galaxy. Jupiter’s physical attributes is one of the reasons it is so fascinating. Unlike Earth, Jupiter is composed of gases, and has a molten center. It does not have rocky layers such as Earth or Mars. It is a ball of gas with rock and sediment debris orbiting it. Jupiter actually looks like a squished ball because of its high rotational spin. A Jupiter day is equal to 9 Earth hours and 45 minutes and a Jupiter year take more than twice as long as an Earth year. All these facts and more are what make Jupiter’s physical attributes so interesting. Unknown to most people, Jupiter actually helps sustain life on Earth. One of the ways it aids life is that it blocks many of the asteroids and meteors that would otherwise collide with Earth, ending life almost instantaneously. Also, Jupiter has a favorable orbit. If its orbit wasn’t static, it would have sucked Earth into its orbit, killing everything on it. Other Jupiter-like planets have irregular orbits, which prevent life in those solar systems. Without Jupiter and its positive attributes, life on Earth would never have flourish as it has today. Jupiter has many moons, each with its own unique properties. In all it has eight moons, which can be divided into two categories of the closes four moons and furthest four. The first group contains the satellites Metis, Adrastea, Amalthea and Thebe, which are anywhere from 127,000 km to 222,000 km away from Jupiter.

SATURN

Saturn is the sixth planet in our solar system and is the second largest planet. The only planet larger then Saturn is Jupiter. Saturn is commonly noted for its phenomenal system of rings surrounding this gaseous planet. It is also one of the outer planets. Saturn's period of rotation is approximately ten and a half-hours in Earth hours. Saturn takes about 13 and a half-hours less than Earth to rotate. It takes Saturn about 30 years to make revolution around the sun. That is 29 years more than Earth. If we lived on Saturn we would die around the age of three! Saturn's atmosphere is made of two main gases; hydrogen (88%) and helium (11%). The different color gases produce belts of streak-like swirls surrounding the planet. The swirls are series of storms on the planet’s surface. It also contains traces of methane, ammonia, ammonia crystals, and other gases like ethane, acetylene, and phosphine. Obviously, this planet is made of gases. Saturn's atmosphere has nothing in common ! with Earth's atmosphere. Earth's atmosphere contains nitrogen and oxygen. Saturn appears to be a yellowish color from Earth. Saturn can be seen from Earth because it is one of the brightest in the night sky. Saturn's huge size causes atmospheric pressure to be directed towards the core of the planet. The pressure is so intense that the hydrogen gas condenses into a liquid. Eventually, the hydrogen that was condensed into a liquid turns into metallic hydrogen, which conducts electricity. This hydrogen electricity is what causes Saturn's magnetic field. Earth has no magnetic field so this procedure does not occur on Earth. Saturn is one of the outer planets, which is farther away from the sun and five other planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and Jupiter). Saturn is estimated to be 1427 million kilometers away from the sun.

GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming is a huge environmental and economic challenge that we are facing in the 21st century. Global warming is also commonly referred to as the greenhouse effect. Global warming can affect entire ecosystems and climates, which in turn affect the way in which people live. We in our lifetimes will not be around to see the major outcome of global warming; however, it is still a major concern. It has come to be known that the major increase in temperature over the last century is a result of the Industrial Revolution. During the Industrial Revolution, when new machines were being used, there were major increases in carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, which is one of the main causes of the greenhouse effect. This is the main reason that scientists believe the temperature increase is the effect of humans rather than a climate change. Over the course of the past century, the Earth’s global temperature has risen by about one degree Fahrenheit. This may not seem like a large increase, but given the time period in which this increase occurred, the change is quite amazing. Some scientists argue that this one-degree increase is just the Earth’s natural changing climate, but others believe that it is due to global warming. More and more scientists are becoming convinced of global warming and its dangers. Global warming is a phenomenon that occurs when fossil fuels are burned and greenhouse gasses are ejected into the atmosphere and burn ozone; the shield that reflects ultra violet rays from the sun. Global warming doesn’t just affect the temperature; it also affects all aspects of climate and weather. The most common belief of global warming is that the temperature increase is in direct variation with the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The affects of global warming will develop slowly over a long period of time.

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

The Greenhouse Effect The greenhouse effect is an increase in the atmospheric temperature caused by increasing amounts of greenhouse gases. These gases act as a heat blanket insulating the Earth's surface absorbing and trapping heat radiation which normally escapes from the earth. They include carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, nitrous oxide, CFC's, and other halocarbons. The earth's atmosphere goes through two processes constantly. Global cooling is the first process. This process uses the clouds which cover 60% of the earth's surface to reflect 30% of the solar radiation. It also uses a sulfate haze, which is formed by sulfur dioxide from industrial sources that enter the atmosphere and react with compounds to form a high-level aerosol. These cool the atmosphere by blocking us from direct contact with the sun. The reflection of the sunlight is referred to as planetary albedo and contributes to the overall cooling. The second is the warming process. This is when light energy comes through the atmosphere and is absorbed by Earth and transformed to heat energy at the planet's surface. The infrared heat energy then radiates upward into space. There the greenhouse gases found naturally in the troposphere absorb some of the infrared radiation. The gases insulate the Earth, but do eventually allow the heat to escape. Without these greenhouse gases the earth would be would 33 C colder. Global temperature is a balance of the effects of the factors leading to global cooling, and warming. Unfortunately, increased emissions of greenhouse gases increase the warming process. For example, every kilogram of fossil fuels burned equals 3 kilograms of carbon dioxide ( the mass triples because each carbon atom in fuel bond to two oxygen atoms, in the course of burning, and forms C02. ) 6 billion tons of fossil fuel carbon are burned each year adding 18 billion tons of C02 to the atmosphere.

MOON

The moon is the most noticeable feature in the night sky and it is also the brightest, but it doesn’t give off its own light. It is, actually, reflecting the light given off by the sun. Only seven percent of the light from the sun is reflected. Sometimes, the moon appears to change shape, but it is only because the sun is lighting different parts of it. When the moon passes through the earth’s shadow and the earth comes right between the sun and the full moon, it’s called a lunar eclipse. This is when the moon is dimmed and it turns in to a dark copper color. When you look at the moon from earth, it looks soft with light and dark shades of blue and gray. The dark parts of the moon are extensive, flat plains that were first observed by Galileo, an Italian scientist. He was the first person to look at the moon through a telescope in 1609. He, perhaps, thought that the plains were water because he called them “maria,” which is a Latin would that means Seas. Today we have discovered that they are actually huge, deep, holes with edges covered by rock and soil. The word “maria” appears to imply that there is water on the moon, but we now know that there is none on its surface. Because there is no water on the moon, there can’t be any life. Like all planets except earth, the moon has absolutely no known life. There is no water or air and the sky is continually black, but the stars are still visible. At night, the temperature on the surface of the moon becomes colder than any place on the face of the earth, but during the day, the rocks are only a slight bit hotter than that of boiling water. The Moon doesn’t have an atmosphere and no fluid water, but now there is evidence that there is ice on the South Pole, which is permanently shaded. There is ice on the North Pole as well. Just like on earth, oxygen is the most abundant element on the moon except it’s in the form of oxides.

CLOUDS

One day in the park my son pointed to the clouds and asked me why some are bigger than others are. He has always been fond of clouds. He always wonders why some clouds are dark and others are white and fluffy. Why some clouds are so up high and others are so low that you could reach up and grab them out of the sky. Therefore, I did some research to find out what makes clouds different from one another. The World Meteorological Organization completed the most recent classification of clouds in 1956. They list 10 basic kinds of clouds that are separated into class according to their outer shape and inner structure. In addition, clouds are also separated according to arrangement and transparency. There is a height classification, which are high, middle, and low altitudes. The different heights of clouds are divided according to altitude. First, we have the high clouds that range in altitude from 16,500 to 45,000 feet. In this group, we have the cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus clouds. A cirrus cloud appears in delicate, fluffy feathers that do not touch each other, and are usually white with no shading. Cirrocumulus clouds appear like very small round balls. The cirrocumulus clouds sometimes form a pattern of a buttermilk sky. The cirrostratus clouds sometimes form tangled webs or thin whitish sheets. A large ring or halo can be seen around the sun or moon when the cirrostratus covers the sky. The middle layer of clouds range in altitude from 6,500 to 23,000 feet. The altocumulus, altostratus, and nimbostratus clouds are in the middle division. The altocumulus clouds are more rounded and puffier than the cirrocumulus clouds. When people stare at the altocumulus clouds, they usually see a shape of an animal. Altostratus clouds cover the sky with a grayish veil through which the sun or moon may shine as a spot of pale light.

KARATE

Karate was developed and introduced in 1954 by Tatsuo Shimabuku on the island of Okinawa. Shimabuku’s karate would be the offspring of two different systems, Goju-Ryu and Shorin-Ryu. By combining the Goju-Ryu, a “Hard” method, and the Shorin-Ryu a “Soft” method he would create in his mind the perfect blend of both styles. Tatsuo introduced katas from other forms into his own form, and would go on to develop features unique to his newly created style. The ranking system, also distinctive to his style, was made up of 7 kyu ranks and 10 degrees of black belts. Another major role in the development of Isshinryu was a vision Shimabuku had in a dream. That vision that helped him mold his karate into its final form is represented on a patch presently worn on the uniform of his followers and their students, and while Isshinryu may be the youngest karate to come from Okinawa, it is as rich with spirit as the earlier forms and continues to still thrive today. Shinkichi Shimabuku, founder of Isshinryu, was born on the island of Okinawa in the Kyan Village on September 19, 1908 (Armstrong, 1993: 7). Upon reaching the age of six, Shimabuku would travel on foot, six miles down an old farm road to reach his uncle’s house in Shurite. His uncle, Kamasu Chan, a Shorin-ryu Master, was reluctant to teach the young Shimibuku. Instead, Kamasu Chan made him perform menial chores around the dojo. After two years of chores and six-mile walks, Shimabuku developed the patients and physical condition to begin his strenuous karate training. His uncle taught Shimabuku the system of which he was a master, Shorin-ryu, and thus started him off on his martial career. During his years of adolescence Shimabuku would change his name from Shinkichi to Tatsuo meaning “Dragon Boy”. It was common during the 1920’s for a young boy to change his name during his adolescence years.

BOXING

Report On BOXING WHAT IS BOXING Boxing is an athletic contest between two people,who use their fists to knock each other unconcious or to inflict enough pain on the other person so they have to quit the fight or be judged beaten. A boxing match is conducted under rules and procedures and has a referee, judges, and a timekeeper. The primary goal of each opponent is to strike blows to the opponent’s head and torso to knock down the opponent and render him uncapable ofgetting back up and defending himself within ten seconds. THE HISTORY BOXING Boxing started in ancient Greece, it was a popular amatuer sport and was included in the first Olympic Games. In ancient Rome boxers wore the cestus, a metal-studded leather hand covering with which they maimed and even killed their opponents, sometimes as a part of gladatorial spectacles. The sport’s popularity declined after the fall of the Roman Empire. But it was brought back in England in the form of bare-knuckle prizefights in which the contestants fought for money and spectators made bets on who would win the fight. The first boxer to be recognized as a heavyweight champion was James Figg, in 1719. In 1743 John Broughton made a set of rules that legalized some things and eliminated others, like hitting opponents while they are down or seizing them by the hair.

TABLE TENNIS

Table tennis is a very fun and enjoyable game. Now it is not only a game, but a sport – an Olympic sport. Most historians will agree that table tennis originated centuries ago in England. It is thought that it was first played with makeshift equipment on dining room tables. Around the beginning of the 18th century people began using celluloid balls instead of the traditional rubber and cork. After this the game became very popular in England and in the united states. Some common names for it early on where gossimar, whiff-whaff, and ping pong. Ping-pong is the name that actually caught on and we still use it today. It became a patented trade name for table tennis. Around the early 1920s the game was becoming very popular and in several parts of the world a movement started to revive table tennis as a serious sport. A meeting held in 1926 in berlin among five nations resulted in the formation of the international table tennis federation or ittf. This federation governs and regulates tournaments around the world. There is also the united states table tennis association or ustta that regulates and sponsors table tennis tournaments and events here in the united states. The ittf is composed of about 140 member nations. The table that you play on is 9 ft by 5 ft. you stand on the ends that are 5 ft in width. The table is separated into opposite courts by a net that stands 6 inches high. The ball you use is hollow and spherical. It weighs 2.7 grams and is 40 millimeters in diameter. They have recently changed the ball size. In fact most people still play with the old ball size of 38 mm. longer rallies and extended points. Easier visibility. Like in tennis, table tennis requires the players to hit the ball back and forth over the net until one of the players misses the ball, or hits it into the net or off the table; in either of these cases, the opponents scores.

TENNIS

Tennis Through the Ages The game of tennis has been around in different forms since the fifth century B.C. There have even been drawings of people hitting a ball back and forth found in ancient caves. Tennis is the second most played sport in the world. With its ease of play and universal appeal it is not hard to see why. To understand the game of tennis you have to start out at its roots. The true precursor to the game we play today originated in thirteenth century France. The game was started by monks playing in monastery courtyards. They would take sticks or their hands and bat a wooden ball back and forth. As the Middle Ages came to a close, “royal” or “real” tennis was adopted by the royalty. They called the new sport jea de paume, which means “the game of the palm.” Royal tennis was played indoors in narrow rooms where the object was to hit the ball through passages with the least amount of bounces. Gloves were eventually used to prevent blisters, which then gave way to the use of wooden bats. These bats, varying in size and shape, progressed into strung racquets. The royal families at that time coined the name tennis from the French word Tenez, which means “here you are,” or “here, catch.” To put a ball into play is called service. This was begun because the aristocrats that played thought it was too menial of a task to begin play and had their servants start the play instead. The game of tennis has been scored the same wince its beginnings. The points are awarded in sets of 15 for each successful win. Each player starts at zero, known as love. There are many stories for the origin of using love as zero, but the most widely accepted story is the French word oeuf, which means egg. The shape of the egg is symbolic of zero. The first won shot gives you 15; the next point awarded is 30.

BASKETBALL

Basketball was invented in the United States in 1891and quickly became popular. Basketball is the one of the major world sport developed in the United States. The official basketball rules for 1966-1967 describe the sport as follows: “Basketball is played by two teams of five players each. The purpose of each team is to throw the ball into it own basket and to prevent the other team from scoring. The ball may be thrown, rolled, dribbled in any direction, subject to restrictions laid down in… rules.” Basketball is usually played indoors but can be played level surfaces outdoors. More people watch basketball game than any other sport in the United States other than football. The Olympic games have included basketball since 1936. TERMS IN BASKETBALL: ~ Dribble means to bounce the ball on the floor. ~ Field Goal counts as two points when it scored in the basket before the 3-point line. ~ Foul is a violation mostly when a person pushes, holds, or charges into each other. ~ Free Throw is a shot toward a fouled player. The player must shoot before the free throw line. A good free throw counts as 1 point. No other player can enter inside the key while the player is shooting. ~ Jump ball happens when the referee tosses the ball in the air while two opposing players try to tap the ball to their teammates. ~ Press occurs when the opposing player guard offensive players closely. ~ Rebound means to grab the ball as soon as an unmade shot hits the rim or bounces off the backboard. ~ Traveling happens when a player takes 2 or more steps without dribbling. ~ Turnover happens when the offensive team loses possession without taking a shot. THE BALL The basketball measures about 30inches (76 centimeters) in circumference and weighs from 20 to 22 ounces for the NBA’s official ball. It is made of leather, plastic, or any other like material inflated with air.

FOOTBALL

Football is one of many sports favored by many peopole around the world. In Football there are many different rules, but the game is still fun. It alone is one of the only sports that makes millions and is watched by millions all across the United States. In football there are 2 sets of teams. Each having their own names. Usually have around 60-80 members on a team. The Football teams usually play in a staidum with a field usually of grass. There are only allowed 11 players from each team on the field at a time during a game. Thers an offense and a Defense. When one team is the offense the other team is the defense. When your the offenseive team you have to score points. Which means bringing the football from one end of the field to the other which is 100 yards. Passing and running a way to get the football to the goal. Every 10 yards is a 1st down. Everytime you play thats called a down. So when you throw the ball for 5 yards that usues up 1 down. Which would make it 2nd down. Usually on 4th down they punt. Which means they kick the ball down the filed which makes the other team the offense. When your the defense you try and stop the offense from going down the field. You don't want to let the offense score. To score points when the football ends up in the endzone you get 6 points. When you kick the football throught he goal posts you get 1 point. If you dont' make a touchdown. You can go for a field goal which is 3 points. Usually this is on 4th downs and around the 40 yard line. Their are referees so that the game doesn't get out of hand. Which it does at times. Football is one of the most favored and most exciting game. There are NFL NCAA. NFL is for pros and NCAA is for colleges. When your pro you have around 16 games. And if you win them all and go to the playoffs you go to the superbowl which is the most watched game on TV. ONly the best teams make it to the superbowl.

CRICKET AND I

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